From China to Europe: A Brief History of Paper

The first reference to a material resembling paper stems from the China of the second century. In describing it, the inventor Ts'ai Lun informed the Emperor that he had succeeded in making a form of paper which could be written on, using mulberry tree bark, textiles, Chinese grass and hemp.

Paper came to the western world with the military campaigns of the Arabs, first to Egypt and Syria at the beginning of the 10th century, then, somewhat later, to North Africa and Spain. Documentary evidence has been found of the first paper mills in Spain, in the 12th century, at Xativa (near Valencia), Gerona and Manresa. The foundations for independent paper production in Europe were laid in Italy in the 13th century. It was here that water power was probably used for the first time to drive the crushing wheels which converted rag into pulp, where animal glue was used for sizing sheets and where watermarks were introduced. Documentary evidence places the first paper mill in Italy in Foligno, in 1256. The oldest reference to the manufacture of paper in Fabriano, in the province of Ancona, dates back to 1268. During the 13th and 14th centuries, the production of paper in Italy and Spain met most of the needs of the other European countries. In France, the oldest confirmed mill was at La Pielle, near Troyes (1338), while in Germany, the Ulman Stromer (Gleismuehle) started operating in 1390, on the outskirts of Nuremberg.

From Europe, paper found its way to America during the 16th and 17th centuries. The Spaniards were operating a paper mill at Culhuacan, in Mexico, as early as 1575, while in North America, the first paper mill is supposed to have been established in Germantown, Pennsylvania, in 1690, by the German-born Wilhelm Rittinghausen.

Paper as an art medium

The use of paper as an art medium in modern times originated in Europe at the beginning of the 20th century, when Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque started using newspaper cuttings and scraps of wallpaper for their collages. From the collage art-form there developed "decollage", whereby the painting is thrown into relief by the surface structure of the paper. This may be printed or plain, but has usually been industrially produced.

This contrasts with the situation in America, where handmade paper underwent a renaissance in the 1950s. In this case, the fibrous paste, while still wet, was discovered to be a new type of artistic material which could be manipulated almost at will. Even during the production process, artists could mould and shape the paper pulp to suit their particular needs. In this form, it can be freely worked, even allowing three dimensional shaping.

Today, paper as an art medium is more common than ever, its popularity having expanded to countless countries, so that it now represents a separate sector in the field of the fine arts.

Books and culture

Books were making a contribution to the cultural scene even before Johannes Gutenberg invented printing with standard-produced letters in 1450. The richly illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages were more than mere textbooks. Their covers, leather spines, graphic layouts, typography and illustrations are all of great artistic value, indicating that a book was much more than just something to be read.

"Art books" can be considered works of art in themselves. The readability of the contents plays a subsidiary role, but they unequivocally continue to be recognizable as books by virtue of their succession of individual pages. Art books call for tolerance on the part of the "reader", giving pause for thought.

While the art of illustrating books has been known for centuries, such books are a relatively recent art form. During the first third of this century, the Dadaists, futurists and surrealists argued the merits of books as works of art. Since the sixties, however, books have resumed their position in the artistic environment.

"Objet d'art" books

"Objet d'art" books are works of art which can no longer be described as books per se. They possess the outward appearance of a book, but cannot be "read" in the conventional sense. "Objet d'art" books demand a new, expanded approach from the "reader", which, in addition to stimulating critical analysis, also awaken the senses to new experiences. As works of art, they belong in the category of sculpture, rather than in the world of books.

Art only discovered "Objet d'art" books like art books - in the 20th century. Since about 1970, books have become the subject of an increasingly vociferous debate. "Objet d'art" books represent an artistic response to the expansion of the electronic media, which produce pictures and symbols to an ever increasing extent. A book, both as something to read and as a work of art, represents an element of constancy in the midst of the confusion of the short-lived media scenario.

The world of paper: technology, games, literature

During the second half of the 19th century, the "luxury paper industry" experienced an unprecedented upswing. Countless companies manufactured brightly printed paper with every conceivable design and in a variety of forms. At this time, paper could be used for almost anything and everything, from toy theatres, greetings cards and advertising posters to paper flowers, suitcases and wallpaper. Paper even served as a substitute for leather, metals and textiles.

Its most widespread use took the form of brightly coloured, glossy or enamelled miniatures with a relief surface texture, also known as chromolithographs. The advance of luxury paper accompanied chromolithographic printing, which enabled colour illustrations to be reproduced to a standard of quality previously unknown.

Even today, modelling "kits" made of paper, depicting aspects of the history of architecture, technology and the natural sciences are a favourite leisure pursuit for children and adults alike.

This department of the museum is aimed particularly at the younger visitor. Here children have an opportunity to make things out of paper for themselves - paper, scissors, glue and colouring pencils are all available. At the same time, ideas for creative activities are provided by articles on display from every department of the museum.

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History of Paper: A Timeline

Around 4000 BC, the ancient Egyptians invented Papyrus. It was similar to paper in that it used plant fibres, however, unlike paper it was made from a woven mat of reeds pounded into a hard, thin sheet.

In about 105 AD, paper was first invented by Ts'ai Lun, a Chinese court official. He is thought to have mixed bark, hemp and rags with water, creating a pulp. He then forced out the water using pressure, leaving a thin sheet to be hung out and dried in the sun.

Around 610 AD, Buddhist monks tool the art of papermaking to Japan, where it became an essential part of Japanese culture. The Japanese used paper as a writing material and to make fans, garments and dolls, amongst many other things.

In 751 AD, after many years of peaceful trading, the Arab and Chinese armies fought against each other. The Chinese were defeated and many taken prisoner. Some of these prisoners were papermakers who tried to bargain for their freedom by revealing the secrets of papermaking to Arabs.

Around 1009 AD, after nearly 400 years, the Arabs (Moors) brought papermaking to Europe, building the first paper mill at Xativa in Spain.

In 1244, European armies drove the Moors from Spain and papermaking began to spread across Christian Europe.

Around 1250, Italy became a major paper producer, exporting large quantities and dominating the European market for many years.

In 1338, French monks started to make paper for holy manuscripts. The new technology was soon adopted throughout France, which became self sufficient in paper production.

In 1453, Johann Gutenberg invented the movable type printing press. Prior to this, few people owned books and very few could read. Books became much cheaper, knowledge and literacy improved and the demand for books increased dramatically.

In 1486, William Caxton introduced Guttenberg's methods to England, printing his first book in Westminster.

By 1495, papermaking had arrived in England. The first reference to a paper mill in England was made in a book printed by Wynken de Worde, originally Caxton's assistant. The mill belonged to John Tate and was near Hertford.

In 1860, the first paper mill was established in the new world by the Spanish, in Mexico.

In 1690, immigrant, William Rittenhouse opened the first paper mill in North America, near Piladelphia.

In 1719, Frenchman, Rene de Reaumur put forward the proposal that paper could be made from wood. This was as a result of a dire shortage of rags and old clothes, the raw materials that were then used for papermaking.

In 1757, James Whatman developed a woven wire fabric, leading to the fist wove paper.

In 1798, Nicholas Robert invented the first papermaking machine, it was a hand powered device where paper was made on a continuously revolving screen.

In England, the Fourdrinier brothers, improved on Robert's invention, paying engineer Henry Donkin to build it. The first successful machine was installed at Frogmore, Hertfordshire in 1803.

In 1850, Friedrich Keller, from Germany, devised a way of making paper from wood pulp. However, the results were poor and the quality was low. By 1852, Englishman Hugh Burgess, had refined the process using chemicals to digest the wood and in 1867, an American chemist, C.B. Tilghman, found that by using sulphites, he could improve it still further. In 1879, C.F. Dahl discovered that adding sodium sulphate to the process created a much stronger pulp.

The width of the web on a papermaking machine had increased from 850mm or 33 inches to 7700mm or 25 feet by 1930.

From the 1950s to the present, the technological advances in paper manufacture increased dramatically, with the introduction of new pulping processes. These included: thermomechanical, de-inked waste paper, new fillers, process chemicals and dyes.

Automation has now become a key factor in the manufacture of paper along with important environmental considerations.

The relatively small papermaking industries of Europe in the Middle Ages have evolved to become producers of one of the world's most important commodities.

Speed of production also increased, from 5 metres of 16 feet per minute in 1830, to 500 metres, or 1600 feet per minute by the 1930s.

Environmental Issues